Generally, with spinal pathology, problems that arise are either chronic problems related to degenerative disease or deformity or acute manifestations of traumatic sequelae. Primary spine tumors fall into a distinct category because their timely diagnosis and the immediate institution of treatment have an enormous impact on the patient’s overall prognosis and hope for a cure.

When considering tumors of the spine, one must consider the different tissue types around the spinal column. The presence of neural tissue, meningeal tissue, bone, and cartilage make any of these tissue types a possible nidus for neoplastic change. Also, metastatic lesions may spread to the spine from distant primary tumor sites by hematogenous or lymphatic routes.

Clinical

The most common clinical presentation associated with all spine tumors is back pain that causes the patient to seek medical attention. Back pain is the most frequent symptom for patients with either benign or malignant neoplasms of the spine. Neurologic deficits secondary to compression of the spinal cord or nerve roots also can be part of the presentation. The degree of neurologic compromise can vary from slight weakness or an abnormal reflex to complete paraplegia, depending on the degree of encroachment. The loss of bowel or bladder continence can occur from neurologic compression or can be secondary to a local mass effect from a tumor in the sacrococcygeal region of the spine, as occurs in chordomas. Systemic or constitutional symptoms tend to be more common with malignant or metastatic disease than in benign lesions.

Lab studies

For these patients, workup should include a complete blood count and differential, a basic serum chemistry profile, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, or C-reactive protein to help distinguish between neoplastic and infectious processes. Elevations in serum calcium or alkaline phosphatase also can provide evidence for neoplastic bone processes. Specific studies such as serum electrophoresis or urine electrophoresis also can be performed to evaluate the likelihood of multiple myeloma or plasmacytoma.

Imaging studies

Imaging studies for the workup of spine tumors include plain x-rays, CT scan, MRI, and a technetium bone scan.

The first-line imaging study should be plain x-ray to evaluate the trabecular architecture of the spine. Anteroposterior (AP), lateral, and oblique views may be necessary to evaluate the lesion. These studies should be evaluated for what the tumor is doing to the bone and, conversely, for what the bone is doing to the tumor. The blastic or lytic nature of the lesion should be noted. The general location of the lesion within the bone, the integrity of the cortex, and the presence of fractures or soft tissue masses are important findings.

The ultimate way to make the diagnosis and ascertain the specific tumor type is by performing a biopsy of the spine lesion after all radiographic studies have been completed. Biopsies can be performed with open or by percutaneous image-guided technique. Percutaneous needle biopsies may not supply adequate tissue for the diagnosis of a primary tumor of the spine.

The basic principles of biopsy technique also apply to tumors of the spine; the surgeon performing the biopsy should take the most direct route to the tumor with the least potential to contaminate adjacent compartments. The biopsy tract should be placed in line with the future incision site for surgical resection of the tumor so that the biopsy tract can be excised with the specimen en bloc. Meticulous hemostasis must be obtained, and a drain must be placed to prevent hematoma formation, which can dissect the soft tissue planes and contaminate adjacent compartments. The drain should exit the skin in line with the incision so that it, too, can be excised with the final specimen.

Histologic findings

The histologic findings vary according to the tumor types as described above. The following list revisits the primary tissue type associated with some of the tumors of the spine:

The spine consists of 33 vertebrae that form the bony spinal column. The spinal column can be divided into the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacrococcygeal regions. Although morphologically distinct, each vertebra in the subaxial cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine has a complex architecture, consisting of a vertebral body, pedicles, laminae, and spinous and transverse processes. The bony canal provides protection and support to the fragile spinal cord and nerve roots within the dural sac. The soft tissues surrounding the bony spine vary by location from the thick dorsal paraspinous musculature to the vital organs and vessels within the mediastinal, thoracic, peritoneal, and retroperitoneal spaces.

The relevant anatomy discussed above is frequently the limiting factor when determining contraindications to surgical excision of spine tumors. The morbidity of the tumor, the tumor’s malignant potential, and the patient's overall prognosis must be compared to the morbidity and potential mortality of radical resection of a tumor near the spinal cord, the aorta, or the heart. The degree of associated blood loss and the overall health of the patient also must be taken into consideration when considering a resection. If the patient is known to have metastatic or systemic tumor involvement, this may be a contraindication to radical resection of a paraspinous tumor, which may render the patient paralyzed.

Weinstein, Boriani, and Biagnini have developed a descriptive staging system for spine tumors based on the principles of Enneking staging system for primary bone tumors of the extremities. In their staging system for the spine, the transverse extension of the vertebral tumor is described with reference to 12 radiating zones numbered 1-12 in a clockwise order, and to 5 concentric layers A to E, from the paravertebral extraosseous compartments to the dural involvement. The longitudinal extent of the tumor is recorded according to the levels involved. Based on an understanding of the biologic behavior of the tumor, the oncologic staging aids the surgeon to decide what surgical margin provides the best chance for complete tumor resection and possible cure. This system is complex and sometimes difficult to apply clinically.

Enneking classification of benign lesions applies to benign spine tumors. Lesions can be latent (stage 1), active (stage 2), or aggressive (stage 3). Stage 1 lesions are usually asymptomatic and are discovered incidentally. Stage 2 lesions usually present with symptoms; most commonly, pain is in the area of the lesion. Stage 3 lesions are locally aggressive and can actually metastasize.

Enostosis

Also termed a bone island, enostosis is a mass of calcified medullary defects of lamellar compact bone with haversian systems found within the cancellous portion of the bone. Enostosis occurs most frequently in the thoracic and lumbar spine, usually between T1 and T7 and between L1 and L2. Enostosis is one of the most common lesions to involve the spine. Enostoses are usually stage 1 lesions and are discovered incidentally. Most remain stable, but some may slowly increase in size. Resnik et al determined the incidence of enostosis to be approximately 14% in cadavers.

Radiographically, enostoses are circular or oblong osteoblastic lesions with a spiculated margin, which gives it the appearance of thorny periphery. An abrupt transition from normal to the sclerotic bone is exhibited on the x-ray. Bone scan findings are usually normal, and MRI demonstrates low signal intensity with normal surrounding intensity. Enostosis sometimes can be confused with osteoblastic metastatic disease. Enostosis can be differentiated by lack of activity on bone scan, by the normal appearance of adjacent bone, by its thorny margins, and by lack of a primary tumor for metastasis. If the enostosis exhibits an increase in diameter of greater than 25% in 6 months, a biopsy should be performed.

Osteoid osteoma

Osteoid osteomas usually present in children aged 10-20 years with a male predominance. They involve the axial skeleton only 10% of the time. In the spine, 59% of osteoid osteomas are found in the lumbar region, 27% in the cervical region, 12% in the thoracic region, and 2% in the sacral region.

Osteoid osteomas are usually stage 2 lesions and are actively symptomatic. Osteoid osteomas can result in painful scoliosis, radicular pain, gait disturbances secondary to pain and splinting, and muscular atrophy. Symptoms usually are relieved or ameliorated by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or salicylates. In the spine, osteoid osteomas occur 75% of the time in the posterior elements, either the pedicles, facets, or laminae. Osteoid osteomas occur 7% of the time in the vertebral body and 18% of the time in the transverse and spinous processes.

On plain x-ray, osteoid osteomas appear as a round or oval radiolucent nidus, with a surrounding rim of sclerotic bone. An area of central calcification may be present, but this classic appearance may be obscured by complex spinal architecture. On bone scan, marked increased uptake by the nidus is demonstrated, and a double intensity pattern may exist. CT scan is the criterion standard for radiographic diagnosis. The nidus is well-defined area of low attenuation with or without central calcification surrounded by an area of sclerosis.

The nidus is usually smaller than 1.5-2.0 cm, composed of microscopic well-organized trabecular bone with vascular fibrous connective tissue stroma surrounded by reactive cortical bone.

Treatment is accomplished by resection of the nidus by open surgical approach or by percutaneous CT scan-guided resection. Recently, percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of the nidus has been performed with acceptable results.

Osteoblastoma

Histologically similar in appearance to the osteoid osteoma, the osteoblastoma is behaviorally very different. Demographically, it occurs in young patients in the second or third decade of life. A 2:1 male-to-female predominance exists. The lesion is distributed equally in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar segments of the spine. The posterior elements are involved in 55% of cases, but the tumor can extend to the vertebral body in 42% of cases.

Patients typically complain of dull localized pain and paresthesias, paraparesis, and, if the tumor is large enough and encroaching on the spinal cord, paralysis.

Osteoblastomas are expansile lesions with multiple small calcifications and a peripheral scalloped and sclerotic rim. In more aggressive lesions, osseous expansion, bone destruction, infiltration of the surrounding tissue, and intermixed matrix calcification are present. Fifty percent of osteoblastomas are radiolucent, and 20% are osteoblastic. Marked radionucleotide uptake is exhibited on bone scan. CT scan demonstrates areas of mineralization, expansile bone remodeling, and sclerosis or a thin osseous shell at its margins. MRI is nonspecific but is the criterion standard to assess the effect of the tumor on the cord and surrounding tissues.

Osteoblastomas are typically larger than 2.0 cm in diameter with histologic features of interconnecting trabecular bone and fibrovascular stroma similar to, but not as well organized as, osteoid osteoma. They can have an aneurysmal bone cyst component in 10-15% of cases.

Wide local resection is the treatment of choice whenever possible. This sometimes is limited by the proximity of vital vessels or neural tissue in the spine. A 10-20% recurrence rate exists for conventional osteoblastomas. Aggressive osteoblastomas have a recurrence rate of approximately 50% if wide margins are not attained. These tumors are not radiosensitive.

Aneurysmal bone cysts

Aneurysmal bone cysts (ABCs) typically affect young patients, with 80% occurring in people younger than 20 years. The spine is involved 12-30% of the time. The thoracic spine is affected most commonly, followed by the lumbar and cervical spines. Sacral involvement is rare.

ABCs of the spine usually present as expansile areas of bone remodeling in the posterior elements. Extension into the vertebral body can occur 75% of the time. The lesion may have a thin outer periosteal rim of bone, and septations within the mass may be apparent. The mass may extend into adjacent vertebrae, discs, ribs, and paravertebral soft tissues. The bone scan exhibits peripheral increased uptake with a central "cold area" creating a donut sign. If angiography is performed, the mass is found to be hypervascular 75% of the time. CT scans and MRIs are used to confirm the cystic nature of the lesion as well as the tumor extension into surrounding tissues and the tumor’s relationship to the spinal canal. Single or multiple fluid/fluid levels sometimes can be visualized on MRI. MRIs with gadolinium demonstrate enhancement of the periosteal rim and septations and not the cystic spaces.

ABCs are characteristically multiloculated blood-filled spaces that are not lined by endothelium. They are not vascular channels. Primary ABCs are believed to result from micro-trauma to the bone with local circulatory disturbance. Other underlying neoplasms such as giant cell tumors (GCTs), osteoblastomas, chondroblastomas, or osteosarcomas produce secondary ABCs. These other neoplasms produce venous obstruction and possible arteriovenous malformations and set the stage for ABC formation. Most ABCs are considered primary (65-95%).

Because of the locally aggressive behavior of spinal ABCs, their treatment can be problematic. The severe morbidity that can be associated with complete resection is caused generally by danger to surrounding vascular or neural elements. ABCs can have a recurrence rate of 20-30% or higher, depending on the degree of resection. Preoperative embolization therapy and radiation may help shrink the tumor’s size and decrease the amount of intraoperative blood loss associated with resection.

Osteochondroma

Osteochondromas make up 4% of all solitary spine tumors. They also are commonly referred to as exostosis. Spinal lesions are encountered in 7-9% of patients with multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE). Osteochondromas occur in patients aged 20-30 years. Patients with MHE tend to develop the osteochondroma at a younger age; they also tend to experience neurologic deficits and myelopathy more frequently (77% of the time) than the patient with solitary osteochondroma (34%). A male predominance exists. Osteochondromas are more common in the cervical spine, especially at C2. The posterior elements usually are involved. The lesions are believed to arise secondary to trapping of the physeal cartilage outside the growth plate during skeletal development.

Making the diagnosis of osteochondroma in the spine on plain radiography can be difficult unless the lesion is large and protruding posteriorly from a spinous process. In fact, 15% of patients with osteochondromas of the spine have normal appearing x-rays. CT scan is the study of choice to detect the exostosis and determine its relationship to the surrounding soft tissue and spinal canal. T1-weighted MRI scans reveal a central area of high signal intensity, which represents yellow marrow. This area has intermediate intensity on T2-weighted images. The cortex of the exostosis has low signal intensity. The hyaline cartilage cap of the exostosis is best evaluated with MRI and appears with low signal intensity on T1 and high intensity on T2. The cartilage cap should be less than 2 cm in adults. Lesions with cartilage caps greater than 2 cm should be suspected of malignant transformation to chondrosarcoma.

Qualitatively, the bone composing an osteochondroma is normal. Abnormal bone growth occurs at and as a result of the cartilage cap. A continuity of the lesion with the marrow and cortex of the underlying bone is present. The exostosis may be sessile or pedunculated.

Complete surgical resection is usually curative. Clinical symptoms improve in 89% of patients following removal of the exostosis. Incomplete resection can lead to recurrence of the lesion.

Giant cell tumor

GCTs of the spine comprise only 7% of all GCTs in the body. The spine is the fourth most common site for the occurrence of GCTs in the body. Most GCTs in the spine occur in the sacrum followed by the thoracic, cervical, and lumbar regions, respectively. GCTs are more common in women and occur in the third to fifth decades of life. GCTs can increase dramatically in size during pregnancy secondary to hormonal influences. The symptoms of spinal GCT include pain with radicular pattern. With neurologic impingement, weakness and sensory deficits also can be manifest.

Spinal GCTs are usually radiolucent and expansile lesions. They do not exhibit active matrix production. When present in the sacrum, these lesions are large with destruction of the sacral foraminal lines on plain x-rays. GCTs usually can involve both sides of the midline and can extend past the sacroiliac joints bilaterally. When present in sites proximal to the sacrum, they usually are found in the vertebral body. The classic findings of GCT on technetium bone scan include diffuse radionucleotide uptake with areas of central photopenia and increased peripheral uptake. Angiography illustrates that most GCTs are hypervascular lesions. CT scans demonstrate soft tissue attenuation with well-defined margins and a thin rim of sclerotic bone. MRI exhibits characteristic heterogeneous signal intensity with low-to-intermediate intensity on both T1- and T2-weighted images.

Chondrosarcoma

Chondrosarcoma is the second most common nonlymphoproliferative tumor of the spine. Chondrosarcomas comprise 7-12% of all spine tumors, and the spine is the primary site in 3-12% of all chondrosarcomas. Men are affected 2-4 times more frequently than women. The mean age of presentation is 45 years. The thoracic spine is the most common site, but chondrosarcomas can occur at all levels of the spine. The most common symptoms are pain, a palpable mass, and neurologic complaints in 45% of patients.

Plain radiographs of chondrosarcomas typically demonstrate bone destruction. The lesions may be apparent in the vertebral body 15% of the time, in the posterior elements 40% of the time, or in both 45% of the time. In 70% of patients, the characteristic chondroid matrix in the form of rings and arcs are apparent on x-ray. Cortical destruction with soft tissue extension is best observed on CT scan or MRI. Chondrosarcomas that arise from malignant transformation of osteochondromas are observed as a thickening of the cartilaginous cap. Involvement of the adjacent vertebral levels by extension through the disc is observed in 35% of all lesions. On CT scan or MRI, mineralization is usually apparent in the soft tissue component of the lesion. The radionucleotide uptake by the lesion is intense and has a heterogeneous appearance on bone scan.

Chondrosarcomas are relatively low-grade lesions (grade I or II). Most lesions are primary chondrosarcomas rather than secondary chondrosarcomas that arise from the malignant degeneration of osteochondromas as previously noted. Chondrosarcomas have relatively sparse cartilaginous stroma with a surrounding pseudocapsule. Examination under higher magnification reveals atypical nuclei with several mitotic figures per high-powered field.

Surgical resection by vertebral corpectomy and strut bone grafting sometimes may be necessary for complete excision. Cure is possible when complete resection can be achieved; this is possible 25% of the time. If wide marginal resection cannot be achieved, the tumor recurrence results in death in 74% of cases. The mean survival for all patients with chondrosarcomas is 5.9 years according to Shives et al. Adjunctive treatment with radiation is controversial for these tumors. Chemotherapy is used sometimes to help decrease the size of the mass with high-grade chondrosarcomas and dedifferentiated chondrosarcomas. Metastases of chondrosarcoma depend on the grade of the primary chondrosarcoma. The lungs are the most frequent sites of metastasis.

Ewing sarcoma

Ewing sarcoma is the most common nonlymphoproliferative primary malignant tumor of the spine in children. Lesions of the spine comprise 3-10% of all primary sites of Ewing sarcoma. Metastatic foci of Ewing sarcoma involving the spine are more common than primary lesions of the spine. Patients with Ewing sarcoma usually present when aged 10-20 years. The most common site of occurrence in the spine is the sacrococcygeal region followed by the lumbar and thoracic segments. Ewing sarcoma rarely occurs in the cervical spine. Lesions are centered primarily in the vertebral body but they can extend into the posterior elements.

Plain x-rays reveal permeative bone lysis, osseous expansion, or sclerosis. Diffuse sclerosis is observed in 69% of spinal lesions and is associated with osteonecrosis. CT scans and MRIs demonstrate osseous involvement as well as surrounding soft tissue involvement. However, MRI is nonspecific.

Tissue from a Ewing sarcoma is composed of sheets of small, round, blue cells divided by septa, scant cytoplasm, and abundant collagen. Areas of osteonecrosis are found in spinal lesions. These correspond to the sclerotic areas observed on plain x-rays as discussed above. Genetically, patients with Ewing sarcoma are found to have an 11;12 chromosomal translocation.

Before the advent of chemotherapy, the survival rate for patients with Ewing sarcoma was dismal due to the inability to completely resect these lesions, especially in the axial skeleton. Radiation and chemotherapy are the current mainstays of treatment of Ewing sarcoma in the spine, achieving almost 100% local control with an 86% long-term survival rate in patients with spinal Ewing nonsacral sarcomas. Sacral tumors have a 62% local control rate and only 25% long-term survival rate because of the tendency for delayed clinical presentation and larger tumor size. The most important prognostic indicator for survival of Ewing sarcoma is the tumor’s response to chemotherapy.

Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcomas of the spine are rare, making up only 0.6-3.2% of all osteosarcomas and only 5% of all primary malignant tumors of the spine. They typically present in patients in the fourth decade of life and have a male predominance. Osteosarcomas are found at all levels of the spine but are most common in the lumbosacral segments. Eccentric involvement of the vertebral body with extension into the posterior elements is common. Patients often present with pain and a palpable mass. Neurologic symptoms, ranging from sensory deficits to paresis, are found in 70-80% of patients. Serum alkaline phosphatase may be elevated.

Plain x-rays of spinal osteosarcomas reveal a densely mineralized matrix, giving rise to the term ivory vertebrae. A loss of vertebral height often occurs, with sparing of the adjacent disc. Purely lytic lesions also have been described. CT scans and MRIs are useful to evaluate the extent of bony and soft tissue involvement. If a large amount of mineralized matrix is present, the lesion may appear with low signal intensity on all MRI sequences.

Most osteosarcomas are blastic lesions. They can be osteoblastic, chondroblastic, or fibroblastic. Osteosarcomas can arise primarily or secondarily from an exposure to radiation. Secondary osteosarcomas can have a latency of up to 20 years. Spinal osteosarcomas also have been found in patients with Paget disease.

Surgical resection is the rule; however, resection of spine lesions is often incomplete due to the size and location of the tumor at the time of presentation. Adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy often are employed with varying degrees of utility. Spinal osteosarcomas have a dismal prognosis, with deaths usually occurring within the first year of diagnosis. Only a few patients have been reported to survive longer than 2 years.

Chordoma

Luschka first described chordoma morphologically in 1856 in Virchow’s lab. The discovery of the notochordal nature of the tumor and the coining of the term chordoma is credited to Ribbert in 1894.

Chordomas are uncommon tumors comprising 2-4% of all primary malignant bone tumors with a prevalence of 0.51 per million. However, they are excluding lymphoproliferative tumors and metastases, the most common primary malignant tumor of the spine in the adult. As Ribbert described, chordomas arise for the notochord remnant. The notochord normally evolves into the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. Nonneoplastic notochord vestiges also are found at the midline of the sphenooccipital synchondrosis and in the sacrococcygeal regions. The locations in which chordomas occur parallel these vestigial distributions.

Regarding chordoma prevalence, 30-35% occur in the sphenooccipital region, 50% in the sacrococcygeal region (especially S4-S5), and 15% occur in the other spinal segments.

Interestingly, chordomas have not been reported to arise from the intervertebral discs. Chordomas occur most commonly in patients aged 30-70 years, with a peak incidence in the fifth to sixth decades of life. Sphenooccipital lesions have equal sex distributions but sacrococcygeal lesions have a 3:1 male-to-female ratio.

Presentation of chordomas is often subtle, with a gradual onset of pain, numbness, motor weakness, and constipation or incontinence. Constipation is a uniform finding in most patients with sacrococcygeal lesions. Chordomas are typically slow growing lesions and are often very large at the time of presentation.

On plain x-ray, chordomas appear as a destructive lesion of a vertebral body in the midline, with a large associated soft tissue mass. In sacrococcygeal lesions, osseous expansion is frequent and may extend across the sacroiliac joints. Mineralization within the tumor may be observed on the plain x-rays of 50-70% of sacrococcygeal lesions. The mineralization is amorphous and predominates in the periphery of the lesion. Lesions in spinal segments above the sacrum are less expansile and demonstrate evidence of calcification in only 30% of cases. They may have areas of sclerosis in 43-62% of cases. The intervertebral discs above or below a chordoma may be involved and narrowed in a manner that simulates infection. The lesion can make its way through the intervertebral disc to infiltrate an adjacent level. This occurs in approximately 11-14% of cases.

CT scan demonstrates both the osseous and soft tissue components of the tumor. Coronal and sagittal reconstructions of the CT scan are helpful in assessing neural foraminal and sacroiliac joint involvement. MRI scans are an important adjunct in the workup of chordomas. The lesions appear with low-to-intermediate signal intensity on T1 images with very high signal intensity on T2 images, reflecting the high water content of chordomas. Enhancement occurs following intravenous contrast on both CT scan and MRI.

Chordomas are lobulated neoplasms, which usually are contained within a pseudocapsule. Histology of these lesions reveals long cords of physaliphorous cells. Physaliphorous cells are clear cells containing intracytoplasmic vacuoles with abundant intracellular and extracellular mucin. Sarcomatous chondroid, osteoid, or fibroid elements may be found within the chordoma.

Surgical resection is the rule. Adjuvant postoperative radiation therapy, proton beam therapy, and brachytherapy all have been used with varying results. The prognosis depends on whether the tumor can be resected completely. The location of the lesion and the size at presentation often necessitate incomplete resection. Persons with sacrococcygeal tumors often have improved survival because the surrounding structures are relatively more expendable and allow a more complete resection. Persons with sacrococcygeal lesions typically have 8-10 years survival as opposed to 4-5 years survival for persons with chordomas in other spinal sites. Death usually is related to local recurrence and invasion rather than metastatic disease. Chordomas can metastasize. The most common sites of metastases are the liver, lungs, regional lymph nodes, peritoneum, skin, and heart.

Multiple myeloma

Multiple myeloma is a systemic disease that affects middle-aged people and is characterized by areas of local bone destruction. Multiple myeloma is the most common primary malignancy of bone and the spine. The underlying cell line is the malignant plasma cell, which produces abnormal quantities of immunoglobulins.

The presentation of patients with myeloma is similar to that of other spine tumor patients. Patients complain of pain that may be worse at night. The laboratory workup for these patients should include a complete blood count with differential looking for anemia and thrombocytopenia, an elevation of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and a decrease in the serum albumin with increased total serum protein. The abnormal production of immunoglobulins can be detected on serum or urine electrophoresis and can be used to confirm the diagnosis. Radiographically, skeletal survey is used to screen for lesions that can occur throughout the skeleton. Bone scans have a high false-negative rate and are not optimal studies for the evaluation of myeloma. Once a lesion is detected in the spine, CT scan, MRI, or both should be performed to assess the destruction of the vertebrae and the effect of this destruction on the surrounding neurologic and paraspinous tissues.

Multiple myelomas are generally sensitive to radiation and chemotherapies. Surgery for stabilization is indicated in myelomas of the spine when destruction of the vertebral body exists to such an extent that collapse and possible kyphosis with canal compromise could result. Prophylactic posterior stabilization can be carried out with segmental instrumentation in cases prior to fracture. Anterior strut grafting or cage reconstruction may be necessary once fracture and collapse have occurred. Adjuvant radiation therapy may be used postoperatively once healing of the surgical site has been obtained.

Solitary plasmacytoma

The most common tumors that metastasize to the spine are as follows:

• Prostate
• Breast adenocarcinoma
• Lung adenocarcinoma
• Renal cell carcinoma
• Gastric carcinoma

Tatsui et al found that patients with prostate cancer had the highest rate of metastases to the spine. They also found that lung cancer was the most common primary lesion in patients whose spinal metastases were detected before the diagnosis of primary lesions.

Complications associated with spine tumors can be divided into the following 2 groups:

• Complications associated with the tumor, its recurrences, or its metastases: Neurologic complications include radicular pain or focal weakness from impingement on a nerve root and complete or incomplete paraplegia from direct pressure on the spinal cord.

   

• Complications associated with the surgical, radiation, or chemotherapeutic treatment of the tumors: Complications that result from the treatment modality employed may be related to structures sacrificed during the surgical resection to obtain clear margins, structures in the path of radiation therapy, or the systemic effects of chemotherapy.